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1. Not only ______ the structural integrity of the proposal, but they also questioned the ethical underpinnings of its methodology.

2. The CEO's ______ remarks about the merger belied the complex and often acrimonious negotiations that had preceded the announcement.

3. It is imperative that the research team ______ all potential conflicts of interest before the study commences.

4. Had the preliminary data been more conclusive, the project ______ with far greater institutional support.

5. The paper argues that the historian's work, far from being objective, is a ______ piece of revisionism aimed at rehabilitating a controversial figure.

6. The report's conclusions are largely speculative, ______ on a series of untested assumptions about market behavior.

7. The professor's argument, though elegantly constructed, was ultimately ______ by a lack of empirical evidence.

8. Seldom ______ such a profound and sudden shift in public opinion regarding fiscal policy.

9. The artist sought to ______ the traditional conventions of portraiture, choosing instead to represent her subjects' psychological states.

10. ______ the council's decision to approve the zoning variance, the residents' association is preparing to file a legal challenge.

11. The notion of a 'universal grammar' suggests that some linguistic principles are ______, not learned.

12. The philosopher's latest work is a dense and often ______ treatise on the nature of consciousness.

13. She spoke with a level of ______ that was surprising for someone so new to the field, challenging several long-standing theories.

14. The court ruled that the contract was invalid, ______ it was signed under duress.

15. Were the government ______ its policy on carbon emissions, it would likely face significant international backlash.

16. The new biography attempts to ______ the poet from the hagiographic accounts that have dominated scholarship for decades.

17. The system's failure was not due to a single error but rather a ______ of small, compounding miscalculations.

18. The discovery of the new manuscript necessitates that the orthodox view of the author's later life ______.

19. His arguments, while internally consistent, were built on such a ______ premise that they failed to convince the panel.

20. The diplomat's statement was a masterpiece of ______, managing to sound conciliatory without conceding any substantive points.

21. This research is significant ______ it provides a new framework for understanding cellular aging.

22. The legislation was so poorly drafted that it was rife with loopholes, rendering it effectively ______.

Bài đọc hiểu

The Demarcation Problem in the Philosophy of Science

The philosophical challenge of distinguishing science from non-science, particularly pseudoscience, is known as the demarcation problem. The issue is not merely one of academic classification; it carries significant societal weight, influencing policy, healthcare, and public education. The 20th-century philosopher Karl Popper proposed one of the most influential criteria for demarcation: falsifiability. According to Popper, a theory is scientific only if it is falsifiable—that is, if it is possible to conceive of an observation or an argument which could logically refute it. Theories like Einstein's theory of relativity, which made bold predictions that could be, and were, tested, are prime examples of good science. In contrast, Popper argued that disciplines like psychoanalysis or certain Marxist historical theories were pseudoscientific because they were non-falsifiable; they could be contorted to accommodate any conceivable observation, thereby explaining everything and, consequently, nothing. However, Popper's criterion is not without its critics. Philosophers like Thomas Kuhn argued that scientists often, and rightfully, hold onto theories even in the face of anomalous data, working within an established 'paradigm' until a crisis point is reached. Furthermore, the Duhem-Quine thesis posits that one can never test a hypothesis in isolation, but only a whole network of theories, making the direct falsification of a single component a complicated, if not impossible, affair. Thus, while falsifiability remains a powerful heuristic, the line between science and its mimics is arguably more porous and context-dependent than Popper's elegant solution might suggest.

1. What is the primary purpose of the passage?

2. According to Popper, what is the fundamental weakness of a pseudoscientific theory?

3. The word 'heuristic' in the final sentence most nearly means:

4. How does Thomas Kuhn's perspective challenge Popper's criterion?

5. What does the Duhem-Quine thesis imply about falsification?

6. The author's overall tone can best be described as:

7. What can be inferred about the author's final position on the demarcation problem?

8. Based on the passage, evaluate the following statement: 'Popper believed that the theory of relativity was a strong scientific theory because it made risky, testable predictions.'

The Geopolitics of Deglobalization

For several decades, globalization—characterized by the deepening integration of economies through cross-border flows of goods, capital, and labor—was seen as an inexorable force. However, recent geopolitical and economic tremors have precipitated a move towards what many analysts term 'deglobalization' or, more cautiously, a 'reconfiguration' of global interconnectedness. This trend is not a monolithic retreat into autarky, but a complex recalibration of international relationships driven by several factors. First, the strategic rivalry between major powers, notably the United States and China, has transformed trade from a purely economic calculus into a matter of national security. The pursuit of 'techno-nationalism,' where countries vie for dominance in critical technologies like semiconductors and artificial intelligence, has led to export controls and investment screening, effectively fragmenting the global technology ecosystem. Second, the fragility of hyper-efficient, just-in-time supply chains, starkly exposed by the COVID-19 pandemic and geopolitical conflicts, has prompted a shift towards 'reshoring' or 'friend-shoring'—relocating production to domestic or allied territories. This prioritizes resilience and security over pure cost efficiency, a fundamental departure from the previous era's logic. Finally, there is a growing political sentiment in many nations that the unfettered movement of capital and goods has exacerbated domestic inequality and eroded industrial bases. This has fueled protectionist policies and a renewed focus on national economic sovereignty. While the world is unlikely to disconnect entirely, this new paradigm suggests a future of competing economic blocs and a far more contested and politicized global marketplace.

1. What is the main argument of the passage?

2. The term 'friend-shoring' implies that companies are relocating their production to countries based on:

3. According to the passage, how has the perception of trade changed due to strategic rivalry?

4. What does the author mean by a 'contested and politicized global marketplace'?

5. Which factor is NOT mentioned as a driver of deglobalization?

6. The word 'inexorable' in the first sentence is closest in meaning to:

7. Based on the passage, evaluate the following statement: 'The author believes that the previous era of globalization prioritized cost efficiency above all else.'

The Ethical Landscape of Cognitive Enhancement

Advances in neuroscience and pharmacology are paving the way for 'cognitive enhancement' technologies—interventions designed not to treat pathology, but to augment normal cognitive functions such as memory, focus, and executive function. While the prospect of a 'smarter' society is alluring, it opens a Pandora's box of profound ethical dilemmas. A primary concern is equity. If these enhancements—be they pharmaceuticals, transcranial magnetic stimulation, or neural implants—are available only to the affluent, they could exacerbate existing socioeconomic disparities, creating a cognitively stratified society. This gives rise to questions of distributive justice: should access to such technologies be regulated or even subsidized to ensure a level playing field? Another set of ethical quandaries revolves around authenticity and personal identity. If our memories can be chemically bolstered and our personalities subtly altered by modulating neural circuits, what becomes of the 'self'? Critics argue that reliance on such crutches could devalue the virtue of intellectual discipline and the merit of achievements earned through natural effort. Proponents, however, counter that humans have always used technology to transcend biological limitations, from eyeglasses to caffeine, and that cognitive enhancers are merely the next logical step. They contend that opposing enhancement on grounds of 'authenticity' is a form of nostalgia for a 'natural' state that is itself a fiction. Furthermore, the line between therapy and enhancement is notoriously blurry. A drug that helps an individual with subclinical memory problems could be considered therapy for them, but enhancement for someone with an already superb memory. This ambiguity complicates any regulatory framework, forcing a difficult societal conversation about what constitutes 'normal' and what is a 'deficit' in need of correction.

1. What is the central theme of the passage?

2. The phrase 'cognitively stratified society' refers to a potential future where:

3. What argument do proponents of cognitive enhancement use to counter concerns about authenticity?

4. Why is the distinction between 'therapy' and 'enhancement' described as 'notoriously blurry'?

5. The author uses the phrase 'Pandora's box' to suggest that cognitive enhancement:

6. What can be inferred about the author's stance on the issue?

7. The word 'quandaries' in the second paragraph is closest in meaning to:

8. Based on the passage, evaluate the following statement: 'The passage suggests that the debate over cognitive enhancement is primarily a scientific one, not a philosophical one.'